The Canonicity Of Certain Books (e.g., Apocrypha)
The concept of canonicity, derived from the Greek word "kanon" meaning a rule or measuring stick, refers to the authoritative collection of sacred texts recognized as divinely inspired and forming the standard for faith and practice within a religious tradition. The determination of which books belong to this authoritative collection, and which do not, has been a complex and often contentious process throughout history, leading to variations in scriptural canons across different faiths and denominations. A primary example of this divergence is the collection of writings commonly referred to as the Apocrypha, or Deuterocanonical books.
The Old Testament Canon: Diverse Traditions
The core of the Old Testament canon is largely consistent across Jewish and Christian traditions, comprising the books of the Hebrew Bible, known to Jews as the Tanakh. The Tanakh is traditionally divided into three sections: the Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). This collection of 39 books (as counted in Protestant Bibles, though the numbering differs in Hebrew Bibles due to combinations of books like 1 and 2 Samuel, 12 Minor Prophets, etc.) was largely settled within Judaism by the end of the first century CE, though the precise timeline and mechanisms for this finalization are still debated among scholars.
The Septuagint and Early Christian Use
A significant factor in the divergence of Old Testament canons among Christians is the Septuagint (LXX), the Koine Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible completed over several centuries, primarily in Alexandria, Egypt. The Septuagint included a number of books that were not part of the finalized Hebrew canon. These additional books, sometimes integrated within the traditional books (like additions to Esther and Daniel) and sometimes standing as separate works (like Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, and 1 & 2 Maccabees), were widely used by early Christians, many of whom lived in Greek-speaking contexts and relied on the Septuagint for their scriptures.
Jewish Perspectives on Non-Canonical Books
Within Judaism, books like Tobit, Judith, and Maccabees, while historically significant and sometimes read for their moral or historical value, are not considered part of the sacred, divinely inspired canon. They are referred to as Sefarim Hitzonim, or "external books." The criteria for inclusion in the Hebrew canon generally emphasized authorship by a prophet or someone inspired by God, consistency with Mosaic Law, and composition within the land of Israel before the time of Ezra. The books found in the Septuagint but not the Hebrew canon did not meet these criteria in the eyes of the Jewish rabbis who ultimately solidified the Tanakh.
Christian Denominational Canons
The canonicity of these additional books became a point of significant division within Christianity:
Roman Catholic Church: The Deuterocanon
The Roman Catholic Church refers to these additional books as "deuterocanonical," meaning "second canon." This term does not imply a lesser degree of inspiration but rather indicates that their acceptance into the canon occurred later or involved more discussion than the "protocanonical" books (those shared with the Hebrew Bible). At the Council of Trent in 1546, in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church formally affirmed the canonicity of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, 1 and 2 Maccabees, and additions to Esther and Daniel. The reasons for their inclusion include their long-standing use in Christian liturgy and theology since the early Church, their presence in the Septuagint, and theological arguments derived from them, such as the practice of prayer for the dead found in 2 Maccabees.
Eastern Orthodox Churches: A Broader Canon
Eastern Orthodox Churches generally hold an even broader Old Testament canon than the Roman Catholic Church. While there can be slight variations among the different autocephalous churches, most include all the deuterocanonical books accepted by Catholics, plus 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees (often in an appendix), Psalm 151, and the Prayer of Manasseh. Their acceptance is based on similar reasons as the Catholic Church – the use of the Septuagint, ancient tradition, and their perceived spiritual benefit and consistency with Orthodox theology. The term "Anagignoskomena" (things that are read) is often used to describe these books, indicating their liturgical reading and spiritual value, even if some distinctions exist regarding their full authoritative status in comparison to the protocanonical books.
Protestant Churches: The Apocrypha
Protestant reformers, such as Martin Luther, largely rejected the canonicity of the deuterocanonical books, referring to them collectively as "Apocrypha" (meaning "hidden" or "obscure" books). Their primary reasons for rejection included the argument that these books were not part of the original Hebrew canon (the Hebraica Veritas or "Hebrew truth"), contained historical or theological inaccuracies (from their perspective), and lacked the prophetic authority evident in the protocanonical books. For example, some reformers argued that the doctrine of purgatory found support only in the Apocrypha. While they rejected their canonicity, some early Protestant Bibles, like the King James Version, included the Apocrypha between the Old and New Testaments for historical or instructional purposes, noting they were not to be used to establish doctrine. Over time, most Protestant Bibles removed them entirely.
Briefly on the New Testament Canon
While the focus here is on the Apocrypha in the Old Testament context, it is worth noting that the New Testament canon also underwent a process of discernment. By the late 4th century, a consensus emerged among the various Christian communities regarding the 27 books of the New Testament (the Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Revelation). Criteria for inclusion generally involved apostolic authorship (or association with an apostle), widespread acceptance and use by the churches, and consistency with apostolic teaching. While there were debates over certain books (like Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 & 3 John, Jude, and Revelation) for some time, the final collection was largely affirmed by councils like Hippo (393 CE) and Carthage (397 CE) and solidified by the time of the Reformation.
Impact and Significance of Canonical Differences
The variations in the biblical canon have profound implications for theology, liturgy, and interfaith dialogue. Different canons mean different sources of authority for religious doctrine and practice. For instance, the Catholic doctrine of purgatory draws support from 2 Maccabees 12:43-45, a passage absent from Protestant Bibles. Similarly, the Wisdom of Solomon contains important theological insights for Catholic and Orthodox traditions regarding the nature of wisdom and the pre-existence of Christ.
The existence of these canonical differences underscores the human element in the process of discerning divine inspiration and the role of tradition, historical context, and theological interpretation in shaping religious belief systems. Understanding these nuances is crucial for accurate academic study of religion and for fostering respectful dialogue between different Christian denominations and with Judaism. The ongoing discussion surrounding the canonicity of these books continues to highlight the complex interplay of history, theology, and community authority in defining sacred scripture.